The New Zealand Wars

To others, however, the Wars did definitely constitute an overall ‘war’. Much of the literature is predicated on the fact that the New Zealand Wars were a series of conflicts unified by many things – especially causes.

Where the Wars are perceived to have been a part of a whole, then broad causes and overarching reasons for war are suggested. This section of this website will examine causes in both local and national contexts.

Cross at No. 3 Redoubt, Waitara.

Any number of overall causes might be suggested for the New Zealand Wars. Two of these are briefly discussed below; Colonial Settlement from 1839, and the Treaty of Waitangi.

A complete accounting of causes may well be difficult to agree on, given the nature and enormous scope of the subject; and given the nature of history itself - as most historians will point out, ‘history is argument’.

A major cause of conflict in New Zealand was undoubtedly the sudden influx of new settlers from Europe. Maori had anticipated that a few Europeans would settle here; the sheer number that arrived caught them by surprise and with few ready responses. Some of these issues are briefly discussed below, but see Colonial Settlement for more details.

The first settlers of New Zealand were Maori people, thought to have originally migrated here from Eastern Polynesia. When Maori first arrived is uncertain. Archaeologist Janet Davidson suggests around 800AD. This is now the generally accepted date of first arrival, though debate continues. For many Maori, the date of first arrival is a lot earlier, according to whakapapa (genealogy).

For about 1000 years, Maori lived here in complete isolation from outside contact. Various theories have emerged from time to time suggesting brief external contacts, during that 1000-year isolation, especially by the Spanish and Portugese. But these theories are not generally accepted, by the academic community at least, because they are still unproven.

As Keith Sinclair has argued, the New Zealand Wars came about because new settlers from Britain had arrived in New Zealand.

New Zealand was first settled by Europeans from Australia and Britain in the 1790s.New Zealand’s first 'English community' was in fact a sealing camp set up in Doubtful Sound. The first wave of European settlers were most interested in exploiting the coastline, for whales and seals mainly. Later the hinterland itself was targeted, for timber, flax and food. However, inland access was always difficult.

These first settlers normally established peaceful relations with Maori communities – they had to, if they wanted to maintain lucrative trading relations. Many men married into Maori tribes and became ‘Pakeha Maori’, living amongst Maori and accepting Maori lore and conventions.

However, some earlier violence was recorded, especially in the far south between sealing gangs and Maori. Increasingly, settlers moved here from Australia. By 1840, the European population of New Zealand was about 2000. The Maori population, by one projection, was about 90,000.

Erin and Philippa above Rangihoua, Bay of Islands,
first CMS Mission Station (1814)

A wonderful place to visit, if you
don't mind a long cross-country hike

European migration to New Zealand really got underway after 1840. After 1839, increased waves of settlers arrived at the instigation of Edward Gibbon Wakefield, and his New Zealand Company. Wakefield planned to send hundreds of English migrants to new settlements in New Zealand, settlements modelled upon a vision of pre-industrial England that probably had never existed.

Wakefield settlements were established at Wellington, Nelson, Wanganui, New Plymouth,Canterbury(Christchurch) and Otago (Dunedin). It is important to remember that Auckland was not a Wakefield settlement.

These new settlements were ambitious in their planning, but the entire Wakefield scheme proved itself to be quite impractical. Little or no provision was made for Maori, or for conflict. Increasingly, land disputes began to dominate relations between Wakefield and Maori. This was fuelled in part by a deep-seated antagonism between the New Zealand Company and the newly-established Crown. Both were effectively struggling for control of New Zealand. Maori people were largely incidental to this, a point that was not lost on them.

Increasingly, land disputes became flashpoints for conflict and war, especially at Wairau in 1843 and Waitara in 1860.

Some historians like Keith Sorrenson and Keith Sinclair have argued that land was the critical factor contributing to the outbreak of war. This is certainly the view of most Maori.

Others like James Belich have argued that issues of contest of sovereignty were more significant. Such a contest began with the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi in 1840.

The Treaty of Waitangi was proposed by Britain, as a political compact with Maori, in order to make possible the orderly governing of New Zealand, though in what specific terms and understandings was not clear. A brief discussion of the Treaty appears below. For more details, see Treaty of Waitangi.

The Treaty of Waitangi was signed on 6 February 1840, between the British Crown and Maori. About forty chiefs signed at Waitangi. Copies of the Treaty document were thereafter taken around New Zealand for further Maori signatures.

About 500 Maori signed various copies at various times. However, significant chiefs and groups of Maori chose not to sign, especially Te Whero Whero of Waikato, who would later become the first Maori King in 1858.

For Maori, the Treaty of Waitangi incorporated a number of undertakings that were not fulfilled by the Crown. For example, Maori people were not included when an early Executive Council to govern New Zealand was established by Governor Hobson. Maori perceived a gradual but definite imposition of British law and institutions at the expense of traditional Maori lore and sanctions.

An overall policy of ‘amalgamating’ Maori into new settler institutions pervaded all dealings between Crown and Maori. As one historian has argued, New Zealand was no longer to be a place belonging to Maori, with space reserved for Pakeha. New Zealand was to be a place for Pakeha, and room now had to be found for Maori. This was contrary to what Maori had thought the Treaty was all about; and they said so.

Plus, around Waitangi and Kororareka, Nga Puhi experienced economic losses following the Crown’s assuming of responsibility for collecting shipping dues and taxes. Nga Puhi also felt slighted by the Crown's decision to move the capital of New Zealand from Kororareka to Auckland.

For these and other reasons, Hone Heke began to agitate around Kororareka in the early 1840s. He instigated the felling of the Maiki Hill flagpole, and the British flag, four times. The fourth felling was followed by an attack on Kororareka itself. The town was destroyed and a number of settlers were killed, thus starting the northern war.

The Treaty of Waitangi, and its believed promises, were much cited by Maori, as the wars progressed. Many Maori believed that the Crown and settlers were acting in a manner contrary to the Treaty’s undertakings in pursuing war against them.

For its part, the Crown believed Maori to have been in rebellion, against the Crown’s sole authority to govern, an authority conferred upon it (it argued) by the Treaty of Waitangi.

Further Reading: Peter Adams, Fatal Necessity : British Intervention in New Zealand 1830-1847, Auckland, 1977; Patricia Burns, Fatal Success: A History of the New Zealand Company, Wellington, 1989; Claudia Orange, The Treaty of Waitangi, Auckland, Auckland, 1987; Alan Ward, A Show of Justice. Racial 'Amalgamation' in Nineteenth Century New Zealand, Auckland, 1973, reprinted Auckland, 1995.